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Head complex was noted as positive if, when held out of water, the fish exhibited a regular pattern of ventilation (for ?5?s) observable by watching the opening and closing of the lower jaw. VOR was observed by turning the fish on its side (i.e. on a lengthwise axis) out of water. Positive VOR was characterized by the fish��s eye rolling to maintain level pitch, tracking the handler. Finally, upon release, each fish was placed upside-down in the river just below https://www.selleckchem.com/products/Gefitinib.html the surface: a positive orientation reflex was noted if the fish righted itself within 3?s. The entire reflex assessment took ��20?s to complete and was always conducted on fish upon release. If a fish was too vigorous to allow researcher handling and assessment of reflexes, it was assigned an unimpaired status for all reflexes. The reflex actions included in our protocol are thought to be sufficiently varied that they involve different neurological pathways and/or muscle groups such that there are no redundancies. For example, some of the reflexes are part of the autonomous nervous system (head complex, i.e. respiration), while others clearly are not (tail grab, body flex). Moreover, using this RAMP protocol with Pacific salmon, no two reflexes in the suite of five are consistently present/absent together (see Results; G. Raby, unpublished data). From the reflex results for each fish, we calculated a RAMP score: a simple proportion of the five measured reflexes that were impaired in an individual fish (0?=?no reflexes impaired, 1?=?all reflexes impaired; Davis 2007). Quantification of plasma cortisol, lactate, osmolality, glucose and ions (Cl?, K+ and Na+) followed Farrell et?al. (2001). Inter-assay variation was