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As predicted, the most forelimb suspensory hominoid taxa (Hylobates, Symphalangus, and Pongo) tend to have more circular cross-sections at both humeral levels (H40 and H50). Their mean Imax/Imin ratios are close to 1.0. Moreover, their humeral cross-sections are not significantly different from each other, which is not surprising considering that they all engage in similar levels of forelimb suspensory behaviors (?50% of total arboreal locomotion). These Asian hominoids, however, do not have more circular humeri when compared with either species of Pan, which use forelimb suspensory locomotor behaviors to a lesser degree ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YES1 by Remis (1995, 1998) and Doran and Hunt (1994), some individuals of G. g. gorilla engage in similar levels of forelimb suspension as Pan troglodytes (Table 1; see references above). When compared with apes, quadrupedal cercopithecoids that do not engage in any forelimb suspension have more elliptical humeral cross-sections at both levels. This suggests that their forelimbs may not be subjected to the same http://www.selleckchem.com/products/carfilzomib-pr-171.html degree of variability in bending and torsion as those of apes. In fact, Papio has an Imax/Imin ratio that deviates the most from 1.0 at midshaft (H50) and is significantly different from all other taxa sampled except Macaca. It should be recognized that because most of our differences are between hominoids and cercopithecoids, these cross-sectional shape patterns we observe here might be related to phylogeny and not necessarily function alone. O'Neill and Dobson http://www.selleckchem.com/products/azd9291.html (2008) have shown that a phylogenetic signal is present in cross-sectional properties of primate long bones. Further study incorporating additional catarrhine primates could be used to test this possibility. In particular, future studies should attempt to compare habitually quadrupedal Macaca and Papio species with other cercopithecoids that have more diverse locomotor behaviors, especially those that have been observed to use varying degrees of forelimb suspension (e.g., Pygathrix cinerea, P. nemaeus, and Trachypithecus delacouri; Wright et al., 2008; Workman and Schmitt, 2012). Analysis of humeral Imax/Imin ratios in atelines show that they have more circular cross-sections at H40 compared with Cebus. Although it is possible that this may be simply related to phylogeny rather than function (i.e., atelines are more closely related to each other than to Cebus), Ateles and Lagothrix engage in significant amounts of forelimb suspension (with and without the assistance of a tail) and both have relatively circular humeral cross-sections.