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Recent studies have shown that chimpanzees have a well-developed, graded, and complex facial display repertoire (Parr et al., 1998; Parr and de Waal, 1999; Parr, 2003; Parr and Waller, 2006; Vick et al., 2007) with facial musculature very similar to that of the rhesus macaque (Burrows et al., 2006; Burrows, 2008). The present study was designed to test the following hypotheses related to the evolution of hylobatid facial musculature: (1) If ecological variables such as environment (foliation, arboreal vs. terrestrial) and social factors, such as social group size, http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Gefitinib.html and organization are influential in evolution of the morphology and complexity of facial musculature in hylobatids, then we expect to see relatively low complexity compared to the closely related chimpanzee and the distantly related rhesus macaque (hylobatids http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NK_cells and one juvenile male Nomascus gabriellae. The H. muelleri and S. syndactylus specimens were obtained from the Cleveland MetroParks Zoo (Cleveland, OH) as heads that had been separated from the cervical portion of the spine following necropsy. The H. lar specimen was housed http://www.selleckchem.com/products/DAPT-GSI-IX.html in the comparative anatomy collection at Howard University (Washington, DC) and the N. gabriellae specimen was located at Valladolid University (Valladolid, Spain). Both of these specimens were full cadavers and were obtained following natural deaths in zoos (The National Zoological Park, Washington, DC and Valwo Zoo in Valladolid). All specimens were immersed and preserved in 10% buffered formalin following necropsies at the zoos except for the N. gabriellae specimen which was fresh. In the H. muelleri and S. syndactylus specimens, the brains had already been removed at necropsy prior to preservation. A midline incision was thus made during dissection of the faces starting at the frontal and nasal regions, continuing over both lips, and over the mental region in order to separate the left and right sides of the face. The loose skin flap on the right side made during removal of the brain was continued inferiorly and caudally to complete removal of the right side of the face from the skull (see also Burrows and Smith, 2003; Burrows et al., 2006, 2009). The left side remained intact on the skull.