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An attempt was made to sample all available sources and consumers at each location. However, the large scale of the survey, the distance between sites and remoteness of terrain meant that only a limited time was able to be spent at each location, so collections are considered representative but not exhaustive. Consumers included fish, benthic insects, prawns, shrimps, crayfish and molluscs. Backpack and boat-mounted electrofishing units were used http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Bortezomib.html to capture fish, and a combination of dip netting and baited traps was used to collect invertebrates. Zooplankton were collected by conducting 200?m subsurface tows with a 150?��m net; of the 67 sites, only 20 (12 off-channel waterholes and 8 main channel sites) yielded zooplankton samples. Primary sources included plant material from within and outside the waterbody. Decaying leaf material (cleaned of epiphytic biofilm), grasses and emergent and floating macrophytes represented terrestrial production because they obtain CO2 from the air, while aquatic sources included submerged macrophytes, charophytes, filamentous algae and biofilm. Biofilm was scrubbed from submerged surfaces (mainly slippery rocks) and contains c. 30% detritus (Rasmussen 2010); we used two methods to reduce the proportion of detritus in the sample and obtain as pure a periphyton sample as possible. The first was to rinse the material into a 1?L measuring cylinder and allow it to stand undisturbed for at least 20?min. This allowed detritus and sediments http://www.selleckchem.com/products/gsk1120212-jtp-74057.html to settle out, and the top fraction, usually greenish in colour, was extracted and filtered. The second method was a density fractionation in colloidal silica, spinning the sample to separate the bulk slurry into light (algae) and heavy (detritus) fractions (Hamilton, Sippel & Bunn 2005). For our analyses, we used biofilm as our representative of local http://www.selleck.cn/products/blu9931.html sources available to consumers because filamentous algae at these sites tended to occur in dense mats in backwaters and these and other less-palatable sources (macrophytes and charophytes) are less likely to enter food webs. The ��13C of aquatic sources were highly and positively correlated (e.g. filamentous algae vs. biofilm, r?=?0��72) so the relationships with consumers were similar regardless of which algal source was used. Furthermore, zooplankton (as a proxy for phytoplankton) were not considered in these regressions because most sites (47 of 67) were wadeable streams or fast-flowing rivers. Thus, they did not support appreciable quantities of phytoplankton, further evidenced by water column chl a concentrations